2D Documentary sources
This gallery focuses on documentary evidence about Roman military equipment (e.g. literary and epigraphic sources) but also what is provided by the equipment itself (e.g. unit or individual ownership inscriptions and manufacturers’ marks).
![MS 1 (f. 1-149): Liber I Machabaeorum. - Fl. Vegetii Renati epitomae rei militaris libb. IV. - 2 (f. 150-211): Index et vocabularium in Vegetii De re militari. - Excerpta ex S. Iulii Frontini Strategematibus. - Alia Frontiniana. Right-hand page includes Vegetius 2.13 with reference to the centurion's crista transversa ('transuersis cassidum cristis'). AD 900–1500. Image: Leiden University Libraries (CC BY 4.0) hand-written page spread (with coloured, illuminated capitals) from one of the surviving Latin manuscripts of Vegetius, now in Leiden University Library.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/vegetius-2-13/4191739616.jpg)
MS 1 (f. 1-149): Liber I Machabaeorum. - Fl. Vegetii Renati epitomae rei militaris libb. IV. - 2 (f. 150-211): Index et vocabularium in Vegetii De re militari. - Excerpta ex S. Iulii Frontini Strategematibus. - Alia Frontiniana. Right-hand page includes Vegetius 2.13 with reference to the centurion's crista transversa ('transuersis cassidum cristis'). AD 900–1500. Image: Leiden University Libraries (CC BY 4.0)
Vegetius manuscript
![The verso of P Mich 8 467. Claudius Terentianus writes (in Latin) to his father (Cl. Tiberianus, a legionary speculator) who had already sent him some clothes, but Terentianus now wanted a battle sword, dolabra, grappling iron, two of the best spears, & more clothing. Image: CSAD Fragmentary papyrus with Latin writing in ink.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/P_Mich__VIII__467r/2189005778.jpg)
The verso of P Mich 8 467. Claudius Terentianus writes (in Latin) to his father (Cl. Tiberianus, a legionary speculator) who had already sent him some clothes, but Terentianus now wanted a battle sword, dolabra, grappling iron, two of the best spears, & more clothing. Image: CSAD
Papyrus
![Letter from Octavius to Candidus mentioning sinew (vital for artillery and bows) and hides. Image: © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) Both sides of two leaves from wooden ink writing tablets.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/Tab-Vind/1104989935.jpg)
Letter from Octavius to Candidus mentioning sinew (vital for artillery and bows) and hides. Image: © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
Writing tablets
![Dedicatory plaque of copper alloy recording the dedication of a shield and javelin to Vihansa by the centurion Q. Catius Libo Nepos of lrgio III Cyrenaica. Image: Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) Rectangular copper alloy bearing an inscription in Latin, with triangular ansae on both of the short sides.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/Vihansa/4089708339.jpg)
Dedicatory plaque of copper alloy recording the dedication of a shield and javelin to Vihansa by the centurion Q. Catius Libo Nepos of lrgio III Cyrenaica. Image: Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
Dedication
![Stela of P. Marcius Probus, a custos armorum. He is shown wearing a paenula and carrying a staff of office and a book of writing tablets, both perhaps symbolic of his rank. Image: JCNC Tombstone with a rounded top decorated with a wreath and swags at the top above the inscription. In a rectangular panel at the bottom is a depiction of the deceased and a range of weaponry.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/02/Marcius-small-scaled/4096197680.jpg)
Stela of P. Marcius Probus, a custos armorum. He is shown wearing a paenula and carrying a staff of office and a book of writing tablets, both perhaps symbolic of his rank. Image: JCNC
Tombstone of Marcius Probus
![Inlaid dagger scabbard bearing an inscription recording legio XXII Primigenia found in Mainz. Image: L. Lindeschmit (PD) Inscribed front plate from a pugio recording legio XXII Primigenia.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/XXII-pugio-scaled/3141254602.jpg)
Inlaid dagger scabbard bearing an inscription recording legio XXII Primigenia found in Mainz. Image: L. Lindeschmit (PD)
Dagger scabbard
![Copper-alloy catapult shield found near Cremona with an embossed inscription, recoding the fact that it belonged to legio IIII Mecedonica and the consular date of its manufacture (AD 45). Image: Notizie degli scavi di antichità 1887 (PD) A monochrome image of a rectangular plate, damaged on the right-hand side, and with an aperture in the centre and embossed text around it.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/10/Cremona-ballista-shield/2933680150.jpg)
Copper-alloy catapult shield found near Cremona with an embossed inscription, recoding the fact that it belonged to legio IIII Mecedonica and the consular date of its manufacture (AD 45). Image: Notizie degli scavi di antichità 1887 (PD)
Ballista shield
![Copper-alloy pendant from Nijmegen (NLD) inscribed punctim with the lettering LEG IX HISP. Image: Museum het Valkhof (Public Domain Mark 1.0 Rear face of a cavalry harness pendant with a pitted, dark green patina with lettering formed from punched dots.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/IX-Hispana-pendant/3186130351.jpg)
Copper-alloy pendant from Nijmegen (NLD) inscribed punctim with the lettering LEG IX HISP. Image: Museum het Valkhof (Public Domain Mark 1.0
Pendant
![Handle of a trulla or patera from Lancashire (GBR) with a stamped inscription apparently referring to an ala. Image: The Portable Antiquities Scheme (CC BY 2.0) Broken handle with a circular terminal, fractured across the hole on the terminal.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/02/Trulla-handle/2817349180.jpg)
Handle of a trulla or patera from Lancashire (GBR) with a stamped inscription apparently referring to an ala. Image: The Portable Antiquities Scheme (CC BY 2.0)
Metal Vessel
![Inscription C(aius) Antonius fecit (made by Gaius Antonius) inlaid in silver wire on the ferrous hand guard of the Oberammergau (DEU) dagger. As discovered, it is to the rear of the dagger and scabbard, but that is the way the dagger was sheathed when found at Döttenichl.Image Archäologische Staatssammlung München (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) via Bavarikon Inverted (point upwards) dagger handle showing text inlaid in silver wire.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2024/03/Oberammergau-inscription/2424940498.jpg)
Inscription C(aius) Antonius fecit (made by Gaius Antonius) inlaid in silver wire on the ferrous hand guard of the Oberammergau (DEU) dagger. As discovered, it is to the rear of the dagger and scabbard, but that is the way the dagger was sheathed when found at Döttenichl.Image Archäologische Staatssammlung München (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) via Bavarikon
Dagger manufacturer's inscripion
![Circular copper-alloy shield boss from Zwammerdam with a hemispherical dome. There are punctim ownership inscriptions, including T(urma) VERACIS PUPI, indicating it belonged to a cavalryman. Image: National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden Shield boss with a brassy patina, with four peripheral holes for shield nails (missing), concentric inscribed decorative circles on the flange, and punctim inscriptions.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/03/1255px-Zwammerdam_schildknop_umbo/60490835.jpg)
Circular copper-alloy shield boss from Zwammerdam with a hemispherical dome. There are punctim ownership inscriptions, including T(urma) VERACIS PUPI, indicating it belonged to a cavalryman. Image: National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden
Shield boss
![Punctim inscription recording that the shield boss belonged to a member of legio VIII Augusta. Image: © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) Unit identification inscription punched into a legionary shield boss.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/legio-viii/1732211982.jpg)
Punctim inscription recording that the shield boss belonged to a member of legio VIII Augusta. Image: © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
Shield boss
![Punctim inscription recording that the shield boss belonged to Junius Dubitatus, in the century of Iulius Magnus. Image: © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) Ownership inscription punched into the edge of a legionary shield boss.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/Dubitatus/2559073709.jpg)
Punctim inscription recording that the shield boss belonged to Junius Dubitatus, in the century of Iulius Magnus. Image: © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
Ownership inscription
![Punctim ownership inscription on a helmet found at Rijswijk (NLD) of two men in the century of Antonius Fronto: T. Allienus Martialis and Statorius Tertius. Image: National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden (CC0 1.0) Ownership inscription punched into the neck of an infantry helmet from Rijswijk.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/202488-scaled/3821634347.jpeg)
Punctim ownership inscription on a helmet found at Rijswijk (NLD) of two men in the century of Antonius Fronto: T. Allienus Martialis and Statorius Tertius. Image: National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden (CC0 1.0)
Ownership inscription
![Copper-alloy ear guard from Ruffenhofen inscribed punctim T(urma) MAT(i) DEC(e)MBRI and AUGUSTANI and P(ubli) RULI (indicating multiple ownership within a cavalry turma. Image: MCB Copper-alloy cheek piece from a cavalry battle helmet with traces of tinning and punctim inscriptions picked out in white.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/03/Ruffenhofen/3601670948.jpg)
Copper-alloy ear guard from Ruffenhofen inscribed punctim T(urma) MAT(i) DEC(e)MBRI and AUGUSTANI and P(ubli) RULI (indicating multiple ownership within a cavalry turma. Image: MCB
Helmet ear guard
![Detail of a phalera from Xanten mentioning Pliny the Elder as the prefect (PLINIO PREAFECTO) of an unknown cavalry unit. Image: © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) Punctim inscription recording Pliny (the Elder) as commander (praefectus) of a cavalry unit.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/Pliny-phalera-detail/2405180834.jpg)
Detail of a phalera from Xanten mentioning Pliny the Elder as the prefect (PLINIO PREAFECTO) of an unknown cavalry unit. Image: © The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
Inscription
![Interior view of a rear copper-alloy saddle horn from Newstead showing two inscriptions, one incised SIINIICIONIS (belonging to Senecio) and punctim XII (12). Image: MCB (CC BY_SA 2.0) Concave copper-alloy object with a rounded top, holes around its periphery, with a bronzey patina, and with scratched lettering and punched numerals.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/09/Newstead-inscribed-saddle-horn/1342511370.jpg)
Interior view of a rear copper-alloy saddle horn from Newstead showing two inscriptions, one incised SIINIICIONIS (belonging to Senecio) and punctim XII (12). Image: MCB (CC BY_SA 2.0)
Saddle horn
![Underside view of a copper-alloy trulla or patera found in the Maas at Alphen (NLD) with an illegible stamp and a punctim ownership inscription >. C. ANCESTI C.VALERI CRIS LE(?)G XXII. Image: National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden (CC0 1.0) Underside view of a pan with moulded rings (perhaps to assist with heating) and a bronzey patina.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2023/02/Trulla-2/3488110152.jpg)
Underside view of a copper-alloy trulla or patera found in the Maas at Alphen (NLD) with an illegible stamp and a punctim ownership inscription >. C. ANCESTI C.VALERI CRIS LE(?)G XXII. Image: National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden (CC0 1.0)
Metal Vessel
![Copper-alloy ownership tag in the form of an ansate panel with punctim inscription > EPOTIS / C.MARCIVS / MATERNI, mentioning C. Marcius Maternus in the century of Epos. Possibly originally attached to a shield. Image: Museum het Valkhof (Public Domain Mark 1.0) Damaged rectangular plate with a surviving ansa on the right-hand side (the left is damaged) punched lettering highlighted in white.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2024/03/museumhetvalkhof_PDB_1991_3_CA__1957_94_2/4075108452.jpg)
Copper-alloy ownership tag in the form of an ansate panel with punctim inscription > EPOTIS / C.MARCIVS / MATERNI, mentioning C. Marcius Maternus in the century of Epos. Possibly originally attached to a shield. Image: Museum het Valkhof (Public Domain Mark 1.0)
Ownership tag
![Copper-alloy ownership tag in the form of an ansate panel with punctim inscription LXG / (...) CINNAE/ AMONI/IVLLI identifying it as belonging to Amonius Iullus, in the century of ?Cinna, of the legio X Gemina. Possibly originally attached to a shield. Image: Museum het Valkhof (Public Domain Mark 1.0) Damaged rectangular plate with a surviving ansa on the right-hand side (the left is damaged) punched lettering highlighted in white.](https://romanmilitaryequipment.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/cache/2024/03/museumhetvalkhof_PDB_1991_3_CA__1961_781/3076890949.jpg)
Copper-alloy ownership tag in the form of an ansate panel with punctim inscription LXG / (...) CINNAE/ AMONI/IVLLI identifying it as belonging to Amonius Iullus, in the century of ?Cinna, of the legio X Gemina. Possibly originally attached to a shield. Image: Museum het Valkhof (Public Domain Mark 1.0)
Ownership tag